TRADITIONAL BEEKEEPING: PAST, PRESENT & FUTURE
TRADITIONAL BEEKEEPING IN MOVABLE-COMB HIVES
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TRADITIONAL MOVABLE-COMB HIVES
HIVE TYPES
BASKET HIVES
In Attica, the movable-comb basket hives were "anastoma" (open at the top), usually woven with wicker and split reeds. At their mouth, they held 9 to 11 top bars - comb supports - which in Attica, Aegina and Salamina were called "kalamismata". The basket hives were coated inside and out with loam and were covered with a cap made of grass. In the Mesogia region, instead of a straw cap, a thick layer of mastic branches, pressed and expertly tied together, was used, with a stone slab placed on top. These basket hives were about 60 cm high, 50 cm in diameter, and their bases were usually flat or sometimes convex downwards. The comb supports were made of cedar or other hard wood.
On the island of Kythera, movable-comb basket hives were the most common and came in two types: "amphistoma" (open at the top and bottom) and "anastoma" (open at the top). They were mainly made from wicker and split reed. The base diameter of the anastoma ones was about a span (23–25 cm), while the height matched the distance from the elbow to the middle of the palm (46–50 cm). The comb supports, called "adonakia", were covered with a mixture of dung and red clay. On top, layers of oleander branches and, in the past, plane leaves were added. Finally, a "cheloplaka"—a slate slab quarried from Ocheles in the north of the island, hence its name—was placed on top. The basket hives sat on circular stone slabs called "kathika". The amphistoma basket hives were attached to the kathika using mud and manure to avoid being blown away by the wind, unlike the anastoma ones, which were not attached.
In the eastern Peloponnese, the movable-comb basket hives were the only hive type used. Although rare, they also appeared in southern Peloponnese (western part of Mani and Messenia), coexisting there with fixed-comb hive types.
In Messenia, the basket hives were upright, the comb supports were called "tsapia" and the slate slab placed on top was called "tikla". The main areas for movable-comb basket hives in the Peloponnese included eastern Laconia, Kynouria, Argolida, Troezenia, and eastern Corinthia. In the south, amphistoma basket hives were common; in the north, two types of open-at-the-top basket hives were used—one with a flat base, and the other with a convex base ("with a hollow"). The latter, with its base bulging downwards, raised off the ground on perimeter stones, avoided direct ground contact, thus preventing rot. Amphistoma basket hives were documented in Laconia, in Mount Parnon and in Kynouria. In Daemonia, Laconia, split reeds were used for weaving, with only the rim and base reinforced with twigs. The comb supports weren't wooden bars but round branches with a diameter of about 3.5 cm. In Parnon, only twigs were used for weaving. The basket hives there had relatively small capacity.
On the island of Kea, where only movable-comb hives were used, there were also open-at-the-top basket hives, although far less than the clay hives. The comb supports were called "plakidia" (tiles).
In Crete, basket hives were only used in Chania Prefecture, mostly as amphistoma and rarely monostoma. Woven from wicker or myrtle branches, they were coated inside with a mix of dung, red or white clay, and (sometimes) straw. Externally, only the area around the openings (about 10 cm wide) was coated to allow ventilation, reduce weight and prevent rot. Usual dimensions: 38 cm high, 42 cm upper diameter, 32 cm lower diameter. Their comb supports were called "canonia". In winter, they were placed on a stone slab called "patichali" or on flat rock (plakoura), sealed with mud around the base except for a 10 mm gap for the bees' entrance. To protect them from the elements, shrub branches and stones were placed on top.
CLAY HIVES
In central-western Crete, vertical clay hives with movable combs, called "vraskia" or "fraskia," were common. These hives had an inverted truncated cone shape. Their dimensions varied slightly, with heights of 37–40 cm, mouth diameters of 40–48 cm, and base diameters of 29–34 cm. Two small handles at mid-height allowed carrying. Bees entered through a long opening near the base, called "anthologos". Above it, there was often a circular hole (1–1.5 cm in diameter), the "anemologos", aiding in ventilation. Depending on the top opening's diameter, 10 or rarely 11 wooden bars ("kantineles" or "canonia") were placed. These bars were concave underneath for the bees to attach their combs and flat on the top and ends. Some had grooves along their length for the same purpose.
In Kea, the most common hive was the local "ypseili", a vertical movable-comb clay hive resembling a large flowerpot. It measured 38 cm high, 50 cm mouth diameter, and 22 cm base diameter. Bees entered through a rectangular opening ("thyrida") at the bottom. The comb supports were made from maple or oleander wood, and once placed, were sealed with "vrovithia", a mixture of dung and mud. On top was placed the "armatossia", a layer of prepared shrub branches, and a slate slab.
In Kythera, clay hives were not widespread - only one such hive has been recorded, thanks to Ioannis Protopsaltis, our informant from Mitata, Kythera, measuring 45-50 cm in height, 40-45 cm mouth diameter, and 20-25 cm base diameter.
In the Peloponnese, clay movable-comb hives, or other types of traditional clay hives were not used, at least in the last two centuries. However, archaeological finds in Isthmia revealed Hellenistic-era pottery vessels with beeswax traces, confirming their use as hives.
STONE HIVES
Movable-comb stone hives were used extensively on Kythera, coming in three types. The most common, "gourna", was carved from a single block of local soft stone by specialised masons ("porokopoi"). Sizes varied greatly. An elongated entrance near the base allowed bee access. Wooden comb supports ("adonakia") were placed in the top opening and made from wild olive wood or staves of old oak barrels. The lower ends were beveled to help bees attach their combs. The top was sealed with a mix of dung and red clay, over which layers of oleander branches ("spaka") and a slate slab ("cheloplaka") were added.
Some stone hives were made from stone slabs glued together with the same mixture. A rare type was hives carved directly into natural rock, where the terrain allowed.
In Kea, hives made of slate slabs glued together were used in small numbers in the last century.
In the Peloponnese, movable-comb stone hives were rare but not unknown. They have been documented in Kardamyli, Messenia, carved from porous stone, like in Kythera.
OTHER TYPES OF HIVES/STRUCTURES
Wooden board hives with movable combs were rare but were used in Crete, Kythera and Antikythera.
In Crete, Kythera, Kea, and elsewhere, to protect hives from thieves, livestock, wind, or the evil eye, they were often placed in enclosed stone structures called "melissokipoi" or "melissomandria". Walls often had niches where the hives were set.
In areas like Makrea Skala in Kythera, basket hives were placed in "armaria"—dedicated hive slots in dry stone terrace walls. These spaces were at least 50 cm wide and deep and 60 cm high.
TRANSPORTATION
Movable-comb hives were not ideal for migratory beekeeping because the combs were only attached at the top bars (not at the walls of the hive or at frames), making them prone to detachment and collapse during transport. Still, transport was carried out in some regions using careful methods. These areas included Kynouria, Kea, and especially western Crete. Transport was done by animals, carts, or sailing boats. In some cases, beekeepers carried one or two hives themselves.
In Kea, "ypselia" (clay hives) were transported by animals (two per animal) or on foot (on the back). Transportable hives had two vertical handles near the mouth for secure tying to a pack saddle.
In the Peloponnese, amphistoma basket hives were also used for migratory beekeeping, usually transported by sea.
In Western Crete, where basket hives were used, local beekeepers loaded seven hives per animal: two upright on each side of the saddle and three horizontally—one on each upright basket hive and one in the middle. The horizontal ones were placed with the comb bar axis vertical to avoid breaking the combs during transport.
Source: Scientific work of Georgios Mavrofridis (Adaptation)
Notes
It is generally accepted that modern beekeeping traces its origins to the traditional open-at-the-top woven movable-comb beehives (basket hives) of Greece. These hives became known in the West in the 17th century by travellers who encountered them in Greece and described them in their travel memoirs. The existence of movable-comb hives provided several researchers of the Western world with the impetus to search for a more rational method of beekeeping. This research into beekeeping methods was completed in the mid-19th century, when the bee space was defined and the modern frame hive was created.
When, in the 1960s, it was found that the modern frame hive was not suitable for beekeeping in Africa, the use of traditional movable-comb hives of Greece were proposed. This proposal had mass appeal, and nowadays the movable-comb hive, usually in an evolved form, is the most popular hive, not only in Africa, but throughout the developing world.
Archaeological excavations in Isthmia, Greece, brought to light vertical clay hives dating back to the Hellenistic period which possess all the characteristics of traditional movable-comb hives. Experimental beekeeping with replicas of these hives demonstrated that they operated using the movable-comb method.
DR. GEORGIOS MAVROFRIDIS
ARCHAEOLOGIST
Nature and culture are Greece’s timeless heritage. Nature, gifted here for millions of years, and culture shaped from those who lived here. If managed sustainably, we can enjoy this wealth experientially and economically.
Nowadays, beekeeping is a driver of tourism development in many countries, from central Europe to beyond the Atlantic. I will particularly refer to our neighbouring Slovenia, a country of 20,000 square kilometres, where there are 33 officially registered apitourism providers, with specialised guides, certified with a special mark ranging from 1 to 3 bees.
Greece, with its immense history and plant diversity, and distinct beekeeping tradition, can offer many different tourist products: knowledge about the wondrous society of bees, the history of beekeeping, the methods, tools and structures used, as well as apitherapy and enjoyment of bee products connected to local cuisine. At the end of the day, apitourism could initiate the revival of traditional methods. Thus, it could contribute to the conservation of stone-built beekeeping structures, such as the bee houses (drystone walled apiaries) of Andros, and the revival of traditional beekeeping methods – in short, to the preservation of our homeland's tangible and intangible cultural heritage.
DR. THEODORA PETANIDOU
EMERITUS PROFESSOR
LABORATORY OF BIOGEOGRAPHY & ECOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF THE AEGEAN
The tradition of beekeeping in Greece is immense and should not fade into oblivion. Traditional methods of beekeeping practice, including the method with movable-comb hives, may not meet modern needs; however, they can help beekeepers redefine their relationship with the bees, and gain stimuli and knowledge to combat the effects of the climate crisis on bee biology and the reduction of bee product yields.
Maintenaining a visitable apiary with traditional hives can also be instrumental in disseminating the history and culture of each region, but, at the same time, an alternative source of income, attracting people of all ages and races .
We urge beekeepers to revive traditional beekeeping methods in every corner of Greece, utilising the knowledge and memories of the old masters of beekeeping and life. As philosopher Santayana once said, "a people who forget their history are defenseless in the face of the present and future challenges.
DR. SOFIA GOUNARI
RESEARCH DIRECTOR
LABORATORY OF APICULTURE, INSTITUTE OF MEDITERRANEAN & FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
Traditional beekeeping had two sides. One was the family tradition, inherited through generations, using clay or wooden hive types, some of which can be preserved, especially clay ones, vraskia*. The other was so-called neo-traditional: people who had studied, or had specific engagement learned beekeeping in more scientific terms. But even they were isolated beekeepers in the village. They introduced small innovations concerning the frames, hive types, smokers, and even an ethical behaviour towards bees that seemed better than that of traditional beekeepers.
*vraski: vertical movable-comb clay hive of Crete
DR. GEORGIOS NIKOLAKAKIS
SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGIST
In my research on Andros, I found an impressively large variety of clay hives and structures for long horizontal hives. The most common hive type in Andros, as well as in Kea and Syros, was the woven hive covered with manure. The hives were placed in thourides (triangular or square niches in walls). All these hives, clay or stone, had fixed combs. However, on Andros, at the monastery of Agia, just above Batsi, I found a unique case of movable-comb clay hives, custom-made by a local potter originally from Sifnos. We know from testimonies that itinerant potters came to Andros in summer, bringing or making on-site earthenware, working from spring to autumn, then returning to their families. In Kea, the pseli, ypseli, dipseli, or glastra is a clay movable-comb hive in secondary, or even primary use in olive mills. In the old days in Kea, fixed hives were used in melissotripia (holes), in ochtes (stone walls or terraces), inside built-in parathoures (built wall niches). All together formed a melissomandra (beekeeping enclosure). These were either rectangular or triangular. Both (clay) ypselia, covered with a slab, and basket hives were used. Beehives in cut hollow tree trunks have also been reported.